SLAVERY FAQS

Along with Frequently Asked Questions about northern slavery, this list includes answers to the questions that appear in each chapter of KOFI’S FIRE

Essential Information

How many people were enslaved in New York in 1741?

In 1741 New York City’s population included around 8700 White residents and 1800 Black residents. There were very few free Black New Yorkers in 1741 meaning almost all of the Black residents were enslaved.

Why does KOFI’S FIRE use the words “enslaved people”?

Many historians today use the term “enslaved people” to acknowledge that enslaved people were human beings and that slavery was done to them by someone else, against their will. It was not the total of who they were. While Kofi and others were treated as property in their lifetimes, it is important to honor their humanity in twenty-first century discussions of their experiences.

What types of work did enslaved people do in the North?

Enslaved people in the North were working in practically every industry. They worked on farms, assisted craftsmen such as blacksmiths and coopers, labored in people’s homes, and built a lot of the city itself.

When did slavery end in New York? 

Officially slavery ended in New York on July 4th, 1827. However, census records from the 1830s still list there enslaved people in New York. It is not until 1840 that a New York census does not show enslaved people.

Could enslaved people get married in New York?

An enslaver could permit an enslaved to get married but it would not be recognized by a court. There are, of course, many stories of enslaved people who formed deep, loving relationships, even if they were not legally married.

Were there any free colonies in the North in 1741?

Slavery was legal in every colony in North America (including Canada) in 1741.

Were Native Americans enslaved?

Some Native Americans were enslaved by European colonizers. Many were familiar with the landscape and could escape to find safety amongst free indigenous people.  

Chapter 1

What are African Heritage Communities?

In 1741, around 20% of New York’s population was enslaved. Given the density of New York City, enslaved people would have worked close by one another. They would have found opportunities to meet, exchange news, share stories from their ancestors, and offer advice. Community support was an important tool for surviving slavery.

What are Akan Day Names?

The Akan people of Ghana, in West Africa, have a tradition of naming their children after the day of the week on which they were born. Kofi is the name for a son born on Friday. It sometimes appears in colonial records as “Cuffee” or “Cuffy.” Kwaku means a son born on Wednesday and was often recorded as “Quack”  African naming traditions help researchers understand the ethnic origins of African people kidnapped during the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.

What is Elmina?

The port of Elmina in Ghana, was one of the first African cities colonized by the Portuguese in the 1400s. Elmina, located on the west coast of Africa, became a convenient place for European ships to stop for supplies along the way to India and Madagascar. Millions of kidnapped Africans from other parts of the continent were imprisoned in forts such as around Elmina Castle between 1500 and 1900 before being forced onto ships bound for North and South America, where they would be sold into slavery.

What do artifacts from enslaved people tell us?

Artifacts from enslaved people help us understand their cultures and families. Objects discovered at The African Burial Ground, such as waist beads, tell us about funeral practices among enslaved communities. It was not always possible for them to keep personal possessions, but given that one in five New Yorkers was enslaved in the 1700s, many tools, household objects, and textiles that survive in museums would have been used by enslaved people at some point.

Where could enslaved people gather?

Slave codes prohibited gatherings of three or more enslaved people. Hughson’s tavern would have been one of a few places where Kofi and his community could gather outside of the view of enslavers. The tavern was also the site of other illegal activity such as the sale of smuggled goods.

What are baas men?

Baas men (from the Dutch word for “boss”) was a term used by New York’s Black population to refer to white elites. The word is still used by Black people in different parts of the world.

What is the significance of April 6th?

On April 6th 1712, a group of enslaved people led an armed rebellion in New York City. They set fire to a warehouse and killed several white enslavers. The story of this uprising was probably passed down through later generations of enslaved people in New York. Several of the fires set in 1741 were set on April 6th.
Find out why historians think April 6th is the key to understanding the 1741 Conspiracy >

Why was fire such a threat in colonial cities?

Colonial New York was a small city with narrow winding streets and many wooden buildings crowded together. The chance of a serious fire was high: fires were used in every home for cooking, heating and lighting, and in industries such as blacksmithing and brickmaking. When fires broke out, they could spread quickly through the wooden homes and warehouses. New York’s colonial fire brigade had hand-powered water pumps, which often could not compete with an uncontrollable blaze.

Chapter 2

What was the Middle Passage?

The Middle Passage refers to the route of slave-trading ships across the Atlantic Ocean. Ships containing kidnapped Africans traveled to Brazil, the Caribbean, and mainland North America where these individuals would be sold into slavery. The voyage was dangerous and conditions onboard the ships were inhumane. Many Africans died or were killed before the ships reached land.
Hear a historian’s account of a voyage on the Middle Passage >

Did enslaved people get to choose their own names?

It was common for enslavers to shorten or change the names of the African people they enslaved without asking their permission. Many documents written by enslavers refer to enslaved people with European names, such as Barbara. Perhaps some enslaved people chose other names to use in secret. Kofi and Kwaku are Akan day names but were recorded as “Cuffee'' and “Quack” by Horsmanden in his account of the trial. KOFI’S FIRE has reclaimed the authentic spelling of Kofi and Kwaku's names for the historical record.

Could enslaved people in New York read and write?

It was not illegal in British New York for an enslaved person to learn to read. In fact, a number of runaway ads from colonial New York City mention the ability to read. Enslaved people worked in nearly every industry in colonial New York, and many had jobs where reading was necessary. Several of the people accused in the 1712 rebellion were able to read.

What is an indentured servant?

Indentured servants were Europeans contracted to do 5-7 years of unpaid labor in the New World, after which they would be granted an amount of land. Once word reached back to Europe about the difficult and dangerous nature of the work, fewer Europeans were willing to sign such contracts. Many indentured servants ran away before the end of the term. Because they were white, it was possible for them to blend in with free society and avoid being discovered.

Chapter 3

What did enslaved people do when separated from family members?

Many enslaved people faced devastating separation from family and loved ones. Family members could be sold or sent by an enslaver to work somewhere else. In response to this, enslaved people formed caring, loving relationships with those around them. Many would also take any available opportunity to go and visit a loved one, even if it meant traveling many miles on foot.

Who was Adolph Philipse and did he enslave other people?

Adolphe Philipse was from one of the wealthiest and most powerful families in New York colony. His family’s international shipping business relied upon enslaved labor at every level. At the time of his death in 1750 he enslaved at least 27 people at his properties in New York City and at Philipsburg Manor. A woman named Amba, also enslaved by Adolph Philipse, was tried during the 1712 rebellion.

How do we know what Kofi said in court?

Justice Daniel Horsmanden did not publish Kofi's testimony in the trial record from which this history is drawn. This is one of many examples of how the words of Black New Yorkers have been excluded from written documents of the colonial period. Kofi’s testimony is based on the speeches of other enslaved people who fought for their freedom. His imagined perspective is crucial to a full understanding of the events of 1741. While Kofi's demands for freedom can finally be heard, the voices of so many other enslaved people have been silenced by recorded history.

What is the significance of the Sankofa bird? 

Kofi and Kwaku speak to each other in Twi (a language from present-day Ghana). In Twi, sankofa means “retrieval of knowledge from the past”. In art, pottery, and textiles from this region, a bird is used as a symbol of sankofa. Other adinkra symbols can be found on artifacts discovered at the African Burial Ground.

What is a griot?

In a number of West African communities, the griot is a storyteller and musician. They pass along stories important to the community’s legacy and identity. By sharing the stories of Kofi and his community, Aker takes on the role of a griot. Today, many historians, educators, and artists do this important work as well.